Restrictions on Religious Practice Limit Freedoms in Bhutan

5 min read

Last updated: 5 June 2026

Photo: Bhutan: Festival - Adam Singer

Bhutan's official identity as a Buddhist kingdom has produced a legal and social environment in which religious freedom in Bhutan is significantly constrained. While Vajrayana Buddhism is the state religion and enjoys constitutional protection under Article 3 of the 2008 Constitution, non-Buddhist communities — Hindus, Christians, and others — face restrictions on religious practice, limits on places of worship, and pressure to conform to Buddhist norms. The Lhotshampa community, predominantly Hindu, suffered mass expulsion in the 1990s partly on grounds of preserving Bhutan's Buddhist identity.[1]

Buddhism, State Identity, and the Driglam Namzha Policy

Bhutan's national identity is inseparable from Vajrayana Buddhism. Article 3 of the 2008 Constitution designates Buddhism as the "spiritual heritage" of Bhutan and imposes a duty on the Dratshang Lhentshog (Central Monastic Body) to preserve and promote Buddhist teachings. This constitutional privileging of Buddhism influences law, culture, dress codes, and architecture — through the Driglam Namzha policy, which mandates traditional Bhutanese (Dzongkha) dress and customs in public spaces and government buildings.[2]

Driglam Namzha, though not exclusively Buddhist, reinforces a cultural identity derived from the majority Ngalop Buddhist community and marginalises the cultural practices of Lhotshampa (Hindu, Nepali-speaking) and Sharchop communities. Hindu religious practices, dress, and festivals are tolerated privately but do not receive state support or protection equivalent to Buddhist institutions.

Christians — estimated at less than 1% of the population — face the most acute restrictions. No church has ever been officially permitted in Bhutan. Christian worship takes place privately and informally. Bhutanese Christians report pressure from community and family members, and cases of individuals losing employment or community standing upon conversion. There is no legal prohibition on Christianity per se, but state and community mechanisms effectively suppress its open practice.[3]

The Lhotshampa Expulsion and Religious Dimensions

The forced expulsion of over 100,000 Lhotshampa in the early 1990s is the most significant episode of religious and ethnic persecution in Bhutan's modern history. The Lhotshampa — predominantly Hindu, Nepali-speaking — were stripped of citizenship under the Bhutan Citizenship Act 1985, which introduced new and retroactive residency requirements that many could not meet. Thousands were forced to sign "voluntary migration" forms. Others were expelled directly.[4]

The displaced Lhotshampa spent up to 18 years in UN-administered camps in eastern Nepal. A third-country resettlement programme — primarily to the United States, Canada, and Australia — resettled over 100,000 people by 2016. However, approximately 6,000–8,000 remain in Nepal, and the question of return and restitution has never been resolved. The government of Bhutan has rejected return for most displaced individuals, and citizenship stripping based on ethnicity and religion remains unaddressed.

The mass expulsion of Lhotshampa Bhutanese — driven by policies aimed at preserving Buddhist cultural homogeneity — stands as one of the largest refugee crises in South Asia and remains unresolved.
UNHCR, Bhutan Situation Update 2023

Legal Framework: Religious Freedom Gaps

Article 7(4) of the 2008 Constitution guarantees freedom of thought, conscience, and religion. However, this right is constrained by Article 7(22), which prohibits conduct harmful to the "peace and unity of the country" — a broad qualifier that can justify restricting minority religious practice. The Penal Code 2004, Section 463, criminalises incitement to "religious hatred," but in practice has been applied more broadly against religious minorities than Buddhist nationalists.[5]

No law explicitly criminalises conversion, but the practical barriers to religious change are significant. Individuals converting from Buddhism to Christianity or other faiths risk community ostracism and, in some cases, employment consequences if working in the civil service. Proselytising is effectively prohibited by social enforcement and administrative pressure, even absent a specific criminal law.

Implications for Asylum Claims

Bhutanese asylum claims most commonly arise from Lhotshampa individuals in protracted displacement, Bhutanese Christians facing community-based persecution, and individuals from Hindu backgrounds who fear discrimination tied to the country's cultural homogenisation policies. For Lhotshampa still in Nepal camps, UNHCR has historically facilitated protection and resettlement.[6]

For Bhutanese arriving directly in the UK or other protection countries, decision-makers should engage with the documented restrictions on religious practice and the historical context of the Lhotshampa expulsion. Expert evidence from Bhutan country specialists can be decisive in establishing individual risk. See our expert witness directory and Bhutan country reports.

Conclusion

Religious freedom in Bhutan is constrained by the state's Buddhist identity, Driglam Namzha cultural policies, and administrative barriers to minority worship. Christians face the most acute practical restrictions, while Hindus — particularly Lhotshampa — bear the weight of the historical expulsion and ongoing cultural marginalisation. For asylum practitioners, Bhutan's human rights record in this area is significant and well-documented.

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