Religious Minorities Struggle Amid Political Turmoil in Peru

Peru is one of Latin America's most politically unstable democracies. Although the country maintains competitive elections and formal democratic institutions, persistent confrontation between the executive and the legislature, combined with systemic corruption and weak governance, has produced chronic institutional dysfunction. Freedom House classifies Peru as Partly Free. The most significant recent crisis occurred between December 2022 and March 2023 following the impeachment of President Pedro Castillo, when security forces killed more than sixty protesters. This report examines political instability, protest repression, violence against environmental defenders, and the implications for international protection claims.

Political System and Institutional Instability

Peru's current political instability reflects long-standing structural tensions within the country's constitutional framework. The 1993 constitution created a political system in which both the president and Congress possess mechanisms capable of removing the other branch from office. Between 2016 and 2025 Peru had seven different presidents, illustrating the depth of the political crisis. Pedro Castillo won the 2021 presidential election but his presidency was characterised by constant political conflict with Congress. In December 2022 Castillo attempted to dissolve Congress by decree, Congress responded by impeaching him, and Vice-President Dina Boluarte assumed the presidency. Her administration quickly faced mass protests and has repeatedly relied on emergency security measures to maintain order.[1][3]

Protest Violence and Extrajudicial Killings

The protests that followed Castillo's removal became the largest wave of civil unrest in Peru in recent years. From December 2022 to February 2023 more than 1,300 protests were recorded nationwide. Security forces responded with large-scale operations involving both police and military personnel. More than sixty people were killed during the protests. The deadliest incidents occurred in Juliaca in the department of Puno, where police killed eighteen protesters in a single day in January 2023. In Ayacucho the army opened fire on crowds near the local airport, killing eleven people. Amnesty International concluded that at least twenty of the deaths could constitute extrajudicial executions. The victims were disproportionately drawn from indigenous and rural communities, reinforcing long-standing grievances concerning political marginalisation.[1][2]

Environmental Defenders and Violence in the Amazon

Peru's Amazon region faces a serious human rights challenge separate from the political crisis. Illegal gold mining, logging, coca cultivation, and land trafficking have generated violent disputes over territory and resources. Since 2012 at least fifty-four land and environmental defenders have been killed in Peru, most of them members of indigenous communities in the Amazon basin. The killings are concentrated in regions such as Ucayali, Loreto, and Madre de Dios. Many communities lack formal land titles, which weakens their legal ability to prevent outside actors from occupying their territories. In remote regions, state institutions are often absent or poorly resourced. Prosecutions for killings of environmental defenders remain rare.[1][2]

Freedom of Expression and Pressure on Journalists

Peru retains a relatively diverse media landscape compared with several neighbouring countries. However, investigative journalists reporting on corruption, protest violence, and political scandals have reported intimidation and legal harassment. Government officials have publicly criticised prominent reporters and media outlets, while some journalists have faced defamation lawsuits initiated by political figures. Media workers covering demonstrations have also reported temporary detention, obstruction by security forces, and the confiscation of equipment during protest coverage.[5]

Migration and Asylum Relevance

Political instability and economic challenges have contributed to increased migration from Peru. The European Union Agency for Asylum published its first country of origin information report on Peru in 2023 after observing a significant rise in asylum applications. During the first half of 2023 approximately 12,000 Peruvians submitted asylum applications in EU+ states. Although most migration from Peru remains economically motivated, several groups may face particular risks that could support international protection claims.[4]

Organisations Monitoring the Situation

Analytical Assessment

Peru illustrates the difficulties faced by democratic systems experiencing persistent institutional fragmentation. Although elections remain competitive and civil liberties are formally protected, repeated confrontations between branches of government have weakened political stability and public confidence in state institutions. The violent repression of protests following the removal of President Castillo revealed serious weaknesses in the management of civil unrest and raised concerns regarding the use of lethal force by security forces. The disproportionate impact on indigenous and Quechua-majority communities in southern regions such as Puno and Ayacucho establishes a clear nexus between ethnic identity and the risk of state violence, directly relevant to refugee status determination under the 1951 Convention.

Violence affecting environmental defenders in the Amazon reflects a different dimension of governance challenges. Weak state presence in remote regions allows organised criminal networks involved in illegal resource extraction to operate with relative impunity, exposing indigenous communities and activists to significant risk. The killing of fifty-four defenders since 2012, combined with near-total impunity for these crimes, demonstrates that the Peruvian state is unable to provide effective protection in the relevant localities, satisfying the unable or unwilling test for state protection under international refugee law.

These overlapping political, social, and security dynamics suggest that Peru remains a functioning electoral democracy but one characterised by deep regional inequalities, fragile political institutions, and persistent risks for specific groups. The emergence of Peru as a newly visible source country within the European asylum system, with 12,000 applications in the first half of 2023 alone, reflects the cumulative impact of these conditions on migration patterns.[1][4]