Iran's Moharebeh: Executed for 'Enmity Against God'

Last updated: 5 October 2026

Photo: Mosquée du Vendredi - Gwen Fran

The Iran Moharebeh law represents one of the most extreme tools of political repression in the world. Under Iran's Islamic Penal Code, the charge of moharebeh — meaning "enmity against God" or "war against God" — carries a mandatory death sentence. Iranian authorities have used this charge to execute protesters, political dissidents, and members of ethnic and religious minorities. For anyone seeking asylum from Iran, understanding the moharebeh charge and its application is critical. This article explains the legal framework, documents how it has been weaponized against dissent, and examines the implications for international protection claims.[1]

The scale of Iran's use of the death penalty is staggering. Iran Human Rights (IHR) documented at least 834 executions in 2023 alone, the highest figure in eight years. Many of these executions involved individuals convicted on politically motivated charges, including moharebeh. Following the 2022 Mahsa Amini protests, the regime sentenced multiple protesters to death under this charge. This article draws on reports from Iran Human Rights, Amnesty International, the UN Special Rapporteur on Iran, and country condition evidence to provide a comprehensive analysis.

What Is Moharebeh Under the Iran Moharebeh Law?

Moharebeh is defined in Articles 279 to 285 of Iran's Islamic Penal Code (enacted 2013). Article 279 states that anyone who "draws a weapon on the life, property or chastity of people or causes terror in such a way as to deprive people of freedom and security" commits moharebeh. The literal translation is "war against God" (moharebeh ba Khoda). In Shia Islamic jurisprudence, it derives from Quranic verse 5:33, which prescribes death for those who "wage war against God and His Messenger."[2]

Article 282 prescribes the punishment: death by hanging. Unlike many other offences in Iranian law, moharebeh carries a fixed penalty. Judges have no discretion to impose a lesser sentence. Furthermore, the charge requires no evidence that the accused actually used violence. Iranian courts have convicted individuals of moharebeh for participating in protests, possessing political literature, and even for social media posts critical of the regime.

The vagueness of the definition is deliberate. By failing to specify what constitutes "drawing a weapon" or "causing terror," the law grants prosecutors enormous latitude. In practice, this means that virtually any act of political opposition can be prosecuted as moharebeh. The charge has been applied to unarmed protesters, peaceful activists, and members of ethnic minorities with no connection to armed groups.

Related Charges: Efsad-e-Fel-Arz and Baghy

The Iran Moharebeh law operates alongside two related charges that are equally devastating. Understanding all three is essential for expert witnesses assessing Iranian political persecution cases.[3]

Efsad-e-Fel-Arz (Corruption on Earth)

Articles 286 to 288 of the Islamic Penal Code define efsad-e-fel-arz, or "corruption on earth." This charge applies to anyone who "extensively commits crimes against bodily integrity, offences against internal or external security, spreading lies, disruption of the economic system, arson, destruction, disseminating poisonous materials, establishing corruption centres, or aiding and abetting criminals." The maximum penalty is death.

In practice, efsad-e-fel-arz serves as an alternative to moharebeh when prosecutors cannot establish even the nominal elements of "war against God." Courts have used it against drug trafficking defendants, economic criminals, and political opponents. During the 2022 protests, several protesters were charged with both moharebeh and efsad-e-fel-arz simultaneously, allowing courts to convict on whichever charge proved more convenient.

Baghy (Armed Rebellion)

Baghy, defined in Articles 287-289, covers armed rebellion against the Islamic Republic. The penalty is death if the accused used weapons, and imprisonment otherwise. This charge is frequently applied to Kurdish armed groups, Baloch resistance movements, and anyone alleged to have connections with opposition organizations designated as terrorist by the Iranian government.

How the Iran Moharebeh Law Was Applied During the 2022 Protests

The September 2022 death of Mahsa (Jina) Amini in the custody of Iran's morality police triggered the most significant protests since the 1979 revolution. Under the banner "Woman, Life, Freedom," millions of Iranians took to the streets across all 31 provinces. The government's response was swift and brutal. Security forces killed over 550 protesters, arrested more than 30,000, and charged dozens with capital offences including moharebeh.[4]

The Revolutionary Courts, which handle political and national security cases, fast-tracked moharebeh prosecutions. Defendants were denied access to lawyers of their choosing. Confessions were extracted under torture and broadcast on state television before trials concluded. The proceedings bore no resemblance to fair trials under international standards. At least seven protesters received death sentences on moharebeh charges between November 2022 and January 2023.

Other protesters sentenced to death included Mohsen Shekari, executed on 8 December 2022 — the first known execution linked to the protests. He was convicted of moharebeh for allegedly blocking a street and injuring a Basij member. Majidreza Rahnavard was executed just four days later on charges of moharebeh for allegedly stabbing two Basij members. Both executions were carried out with shocking speed, leaving virtually no time for appeals.

Targeting Ethnic Minorities

The moharebeh charge has been disproportionately applied to ethnic minorities. Kurdish activists in Iran's western provinces face particular risk. The Kurdistan Human Rights Network documented dozens of moharebeh charges against Kurdish individuals following the 2022 protests. Baloch communities in Sistan-Baluchestan province also face severe persecution. The September 2022 "Bloody Friday" massacre in Zahedan, where security forces killed at least 96 Baloch protesters, was followed by mass arrests and moharebeh charges against survivors.[6]

Executions in Iran: The Broader Picture

The use of the Iran Moharebeh law occurs within the context of Iran's broader execution epidemic. Iran consistently ranks as one of the world's top executioners. The following chart tracks annual execution figures as documented by Iran Human Rights (IHR), an independent monitoring organization based in Norway.[7]

Notable Moharebeh Cases

Several high-profile cases illustrate how the Iran Moharebeh law has been weaponized against political opponents. These cases are directly relevant to asylum claims and provide essential context for expert witnesses.[8]

Mohammad Mehdi Karami and Seyyed Mohammad Hosseini — A 22-year-old karate champion and a 39-year-old volunteer, respectively. Both were arrested during protests in Karaj in November 2022. They were convicted of moharebeh for the alleged killing of a Basij militia member. Their families reported they were tortured into confessing. They were executed on 7 January 2023.

Mohsen Shekari — A 23-year-old protester convicted of moharebeh for blocking a Tehran street and allegedly injuring a Basij member with a machete during protests. He was executed on 8 December 2022, becoming the first known execution linked to the Woman, Life, Freedom movement. His trial lasted less than one day.

Majidreza Rahnavard — A 23-year-old convicted of moharebeh for allegedly stabbing two security force members during protests in Mashhad. He was publicly hanged on 12 December 2022, just four days after Shekari's execution. His execution was broadcast as a warning to other protesters.

Navid Afkari — A 27-year-old wrestler executed on 12 September 2020 on moharebeh charges related to the 2018 economic protests. He was convicted of stabbing a government employee, but consistently maintained his innocence. Amnesty International and other organizations documented evidence that his confession was extracted under torture.[9]

The Scale of Repression in Iran

The Iran Moharebeh law is the tip of a much larger apparatus of repression. Iran's security forces include the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), the Basij militia, the Intelligence Ministry (VAJA), and the IRGC Intelligence Organization. Together, they maintain comprehensive surveillance of Iranian citizens. Social media monitoring is pervasive, and authorities have repeatedly shut down the internet during periods of unrest.[10]

The judiciary is not independent. The head of the judiciary is appointed by the Supreme Leader. Revolutionary Courts operate outside the ordinary judicial system and handle cases involving political offences and national security. Defendants in Revolutionary Courts routinely report denial of access to counsel, forced confessions, and trials lasting only minutes. The UN Special Rapporteur on Iran has repeatedly condemned these proceedings as falling far short of international fair trial standards.

Women face particular risks. The 2022 protests were triggered by the enforcement of mandatory hijab laws. Since then, the regime has intensified enforcement, deploying surveillance cameras and facial recognition technology to identify women not wearing the hijab. The Chastity and Hijab Bill, passed in 2023, imposes penalties of up to 15 years in prison for repeated violations. Women's rights activists face prosecution on national security charges and, in extreme cases, moharebeh.[11]

The Islamic Republic of Iran continues to use the death penalty as a tool of political repression and a weapon of intimidation against the population at large. The charges of moharebeh and efsad-e-fel-arz are applied in a manner that is incompatible with international human rights law, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, to which Iran is a State party.
Javaid Rehman, UN Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Iran, Report to the UN General Assembly (October 2023)

Implications for Asylum Claims

The Iran Moharebeh law has profound implications for asylum claims. Several categories of Iranian nationals face heightened risk upon return, and their claims for international protection are supported by extensive evidence.[12]

Protesters and political activists face the most severe risk. Anyone who participated in the 2022 protests, even at a low level, may face prosecution upon return. Iranian authorities have used CCTV footage, mobile phone data, and informant networks to identify protesters long after events concluded. The charges they face range from "acting against national security" (up to 10 years) to moharebeh (death). Given this range of outcomes, the risk is clearly sufficient to establish a well-founded fear of persecution.

Ethnic minorities face compounded risks. Kurdish, Baloch, Arab, and Turkmen Iranians experience discrimination and persecution regardless of political activity. When members of these communities engage in any form of political expression, the risk of moharebeh charges increases substantially. Asylum decision-makers should assess these claims with awareness of the intersecting grounds of persecution — political opinion and ethnicity/nationality.

Members of the diaspora are also at risk. Iranian intelligence services actively monitor the activities of Iranians abroad. Participation in protests outside Iran, social media activity critical of the regime, and contact with opposition organizations are all recorded. Individuals who engage in these activities face arrest upon return. The asylum guide provides further details on sur place claims involving Iranian nationals.

Conclusion

The Iran Moharebeh law stands as one of the most extreme instruments of political repression in the modern world. It allows the Islamic Republic to execute its citizens for the vaguely defined crime of "enmity against God," a charge that in practice encompasses peaceful protest, political dissent, and ethnic minority activism. The 2022 Mahsa Amini protests brought global attention to this charge, but moharebeh has been used for decades to silence opposition.

The execution figures speak for themselves. With over 800 executions annually and rising, Iran's use of the death penalty far exceeds what can be attributed to ordinary criminal justice. The UN, Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, and Iran Human Rights have all documented the political nature of many of these executions. For asylum claimants, the Iran Moharebeh law represents an existential threat.

Expert witnesses play a crucial role in explaining the moharebeh charge, the functioning of Revolutionary Courts, and the specific risk factors that apply to individual claimants. Asylum decision-makers must understand that Iran uses the language of religion and law to disguise what is fundamentally political persecution. The charge of "war against God" is a charge of war against the regime. It is applied to the regime's political enemies, and it carries only one sentence: death.