Christians and Muslims Alike Face Religious Restrictions in Eritrea

Introduction

Eritrea implements one of the world's most restrictive religious freedom regimes, officially recognizing only four religions: the Eritrean Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Evangelical Lutheran Church, and Islam (Sunni). Any religious practice outside this narrow state-approved framework is prohibited and prosecuted as a criminal offense. Jehovah's Witnesses, evangelical Christians, Pentecostals, Shia Muslims, and members of other unregistered faiths face systematic persecution including arrest, torture, and indefinite imprisonment without trial. The government treats religious practice as a state monopoly, controlling religious institutions, dictating religious messaging, and preventing independent religious activity. Unregistered religious groups operate clandestinely, holding secret meetings and worship services in fear of government raids and arrest. As of 2024-2025, over 50 Jehovah's Witnesses remain imprisoned in Eritrean detention facilities, many held for over a decade without trial. An estimated 1,000+ individuals are imprisoned for religious offenses, including practicing unregistered faiths, attending unregistered religious gatherings, and refusing military service on religious grounds. The persecution violates international religious freedom protections and creates asylum eligibility for those fleeing religious persecution.

Background and Context

Eritrea's religious restrictions emerged gradually after independence in 1993. During the liberation struggle and initial post-independence period, the PFDJ government maintained somewhat more openness toward religious organizations. However, beginning in the late 1990s and intensifying in the early 2000s, the government began implementing increasingly restrictive policies. In 2002, the government issued a proclamation formally limiting official recognition to four religions: the Eritrean Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Evangelical Lutheran Church, and Islam. This proclamation transformed religious freedom from a right into a privilege granted only to state-approved denominations. The government's stated rationale was to prevent religious extremism and maintain national unity. However, the restrictions extended far beyond preventing harmful extremism; they criminalized mainstream Christian and Muslim denominations practiced globally by millions of people.

The selection of four recognized religions reflected geographic and demographic considerations rather than democratic principles or religious freedom norms. The Eritrean Orthodox Church has deep historical roots in Eritrea and represents a substantial portion of the Christian population. Catholicism was introduced through colonial and missionary activity and maintains a significant following. Lutheranism was established through Scandinavian missionary work and has institutional presence. Islam, practiced by roughly half of Eritrea's population, was included in the form of Sunni Islam, though this restriction has complicated relations with the Muslim community. These four religions were permitted to maintain institutional structures, though under close government supervision. Even within these recognized faiths, the government controls religious leadership appointments, dictates sermon content, and prevents any religious message that might be perceived as critical of government policy or as promoting alternative values.

All other religions were explicitly prohibited. Evangelical Christianity, Pentecostalism, Adventism, Jehovah's Witnesses, and other faiths became illegal to practice. This criminalization extended to private religious practice in homes, making even worship in family settings a criminal offense if conducted outside the four approved denominations. The government's logic treated religion as a matter of state security rather than individual conscience. Religious communities perceived as having outside connections, alternative ideologies, or potential to attract followers were viewed as threats to national unity and government control. The prohibition created a system where individuals converted to unregistered faiths, members of diaspora communities who had adopted new religions upon immigrating abroad, and those seeking spiritual alternatives to state-approved religions all became criminals under Eritrean law.

Current Situation

As of 2024-2025, Eritrea's prohibition on unregistered religions remains actively enforced. The government continues to arrest and imprison individuals practicing prohibited faiths. Jehovah's Witnesses have faced particularly severe persecution, with at least 120+ imprisoned for refusing military service on religious grounds and for participating in prohibited religious activities. The organization Jehovah's Witnesses Worldwide reports that members in Eritrea face torture, denial of medical care, and indefinite detention without trial. Several Jehovah's Witnesses arrested in the early 2000s remain imprisoned without formal charges or trials. Their detention represents one of the longest cases of religious persecution by a state actor continuing in the twenty-first century. The U.S. State Department's International Religious Freedom Report consistently identifies Eritrea as a state of particular concern due to systematic religious persecution.

Beyond Jehovah's Witnesses, evangelical Christians, Pentecostals, and other unregistered religious practitioners face constant risk of arrest. Secret churches operate clandestinely, with members meeting in homes and isolated locations to avoid detection. The government maintains surveillance networks specifically tasked with identifying unregistered religious gatherings. Informants report religious meetings to authorities, leading to raids, arrests, and prosecutions. Individuals discovered participating in unregistered religious activities face criminal charges, imprisonment, and torture. Some have been held in military detention facilities where torture practices include prolonged solitary confinement, beatings, and denial of basic necessities. The psychological trauma of living in constant fear of arrest for practicing one's faith, combined with the actual torture experienced by arrested individuals, represents severe persecution under international human rights law.

The government's control extends into the personal religious practice of members of recognized faiths as well. The Eritrean Orthodox Church, Roman Catholic Church, Lutheran Church, and Sunni Muslim leadership structures are staffed by government-approved individuals who ensure that all religious messaging aligns with government policy. Clergy are monitored and prevented from delivering sermons that might be perceived as critical of government or as promoting values inconsistent with state ideology. Religious services are subject to government surveillance and control. Religious organizations cannot conduct independent social service activities, educational programs, or charitable work without government approval. This comprehensive government control of even recognized religions means that true religious freedom does not exist in any form in Eritrea.

In 2023 and 2024, documented cases show that arrests of unregistered religious practitioners continue. Reports from international religious freedom organizations document specific cases of individuals arrested for attending evangelical churches, Pentecostal gatherings, or Jehovah's Witnesses meetings. Some individuals have been prosecuted for possessing religious texts of prohibited denominations or for attempting to convert others to unregistered faiths. The government's enforcement remains systematic and ongoing. The intimidation extends beyond arrested individuals to their families, who face social stigma and potential government suspicion due to their relatives' religious affiliation. This creates a chilling effect on freedom of religion affecting not only individual believers but entire family networks.

Key Patterns of Violation

Religious persecution in Eritrea follows consistent patterns:

1. Criminalization of Unregistered Religious Practice: Eritrean law explicitly criminalizes the practice of any religion not officially recognized by the government. Simply attending a worship service of an unregistered religion constitutes a criminal offense. Even private worship in homes is illegal if conducted outside the four approved religions. This blanket criminalization transforms religious expression into a criminal activity punishable by imprisonment and torture.

2. Arrest Without Legal Process: Religious practitioners are arrested without warrants, without notification of charges, and without access to legal counsel. The arrests occur based on informant reports or government surveillance, with individuals detained at government pleasure. Many religious prisoners remain incarcerated for years without formal trials or charges being officially announced, effectively disappearing into the prison system.

3. Torture and Abuse in Military Detention: Religious prisoners are held in military detention facilities where torture is systematic and documented. Torture methods include prolonged solitary confinement in underground metal containers, exposure to extreme temperatures, beatings, sexual abuse, and denial of medical care. The torture specifically targets religious prisoners and is designed to force renunciation of faith or confession of involvement with unregistered religious groups.

4. Surveillance and Raids of Religious Gatherings: The government maintains active surveillance specifically targeting religious communities. Informants report gatherings of unregistered religions to authorities. Government security forces conduct raids on homes where religious meetings occur, arresting all participants. This pervasive surveillance creates an environment where individuals cannot worship safely even in private settings.

5. Control of Recognized Religious Institutions: Even the four approved religions operate under tight government control. The government appoints religious leadership, approves sermon content, and controls all religious messaging. Religious organizations cannot conduct activities independent of government oversight. This means that even members of recognized faiths experience severe restrictions on their ability to practice religion according to their conscience.

Legal Framework

Eritrea's religious restrictions violate multiple binding international legal obligations. As a state party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) since 2002, Eritrea has committed to protect freedom of religion and belief (Article 18). Article 18 of the ICCPR guarantees that "everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion," including "freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice." The covenant protects both religious belief and religious practice, explicitly stating that freedom to manifest religion can be restricted only by limitations "prescribed by law and necessary to protect public safety, order, health, or morals or the fundamental rights and freedoms of others." Eritrea's blanket criminalization of entire religious communities and prohibition on private religious practice cannot meet this narrow exception. The restrictions are not designed to protect specific rights or address specific harms; they are designed to ensure state monopoly over religious life.

The UN Human Rights Committee, which monitors ICCPR compliance, has repeatedly condemned countries that criminalize religious practice and restrict religious freedom. In its 2019 review of Eritrea, the committee expressed deep concern about the criminalization of unregistered religions and called on the government to repeal restrictions on religious practice. The committee specifically addressed the persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses and recommended that the government cease arresting religious practitioners and implement legal protection for freedom of religion. Eritrea has not complied with these recommendations and continues prosecution of religious minorities.

The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR), which Eritrea ratified in 1994, also protects freedom of conscience and religion in Article 8. The charter guarantees the right to "freedom of conscience, the profession and free practice of religion," subject only to limited restrictions. The African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights has interpreted these provisions as providing robust protection for religious practice, even for minority religions. The criminalization of unregistered faiths in Eritrea violates this charter provision, as the restrictions extend far beyond legitimate state interests and effectively eliminate religious freedom for those outside the four approved denominations.

The Convention Against Torture (CAT), which Eritrea ratified in 2001, explicitly prohibits torture and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment in all circumstances. Yet documented evidence confirms that Eritrean authorities torture religious prisoners in military detention facilities. The torture of religious detainees, including Jehovah's Witnesses and evangelical Christians, constitutes direct violation of the CAT. The torture is explicitly inflicted due to the victims' religious beliefs and practices, making religious persecution a tool of state torture policy.

International human rights law establishes freedom of religion as a fundamental human right protected without exception. The UN Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief affirms that freedom of religion applies to all beliefs, whether majority or minority, mainstream or unconventional. The declaration specifically protects the right to change religion, to practice religion privately or publicly, and to establish religious institutions. Eritrea's criminalization of religious conversion, religious practice, and unregistered religious organizations violates all of these protected dimensions of religious freedom.

International Obligations and the 1951 Refugee Convention

The 1951 Refugee Convention provides crucial protection for individuals fleeing religious persecution in Eritrea. Under Article 1A(2), a person qualifies as a refugee if they have "a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion." The convention explicitly lists "religion" as a protected ground, establishing that persecution based on religious belief or practice justifies refugee protection. Religious freedom is recognized as so fundamental that its denial alone, regardless of other circumstances, may justify asylum protection.

Eritrean religious minorities and those persecuted for their faith clearly meet the convention's standard. The government explicitly prosecutes individuals based on their religious beliefs and practices. The persecution is systematic, affecting entire religious communities rather than isolated individuals. The persecution is motivated by the victims' religion—the government explicitly criminalizes the religious practices themselves, not secondary activities or conduct. This direct targeting of religion as the basis for persecution makes the connection between persecution and the protected ground of religion clear and explicit.

Even religious practitioners of recognized faiths can qualify for refugee protection if they face persecution for their specific religious practices or beliefs within their denomination. An individual who practices evangelical Christianity within the Eritrean Orthodox Church, or who teaches Islamic doctrines deemed politically problematic by the government, could face persecution despite belonging to technically recognized religions. The persecution is based on their religious beliefs and practices, making them eligible under the convention's religion ground.

The "particular social group" ground also potentially applies to religious communities in Eritrea. The government persecutes individuals based on their membership in unregistered religious communities. These communities share common religious beliefs and practices, forming cohesive groups perceived as distinct by society. Persecution based on membership in these religious communities could qualify individuals for protection under the "particular social group" framework as well.

The non-refoulement principle—the prohibition against returning refugees to places of persecution—creates an absolute obligation for receiving countries to grant asylum to Eritrean religious minorities. Article 33 of the 1951 Refugee Convention prohibits returning any person to places where they face persecution for protected reasons including religion. For Eritrean religious minorities, return to Eritrea would almost certainly result in immediate arrest, torture, and imprisonment. Receiving states cannot lawfully return such individuals to this fate. The non-refoulement principle is recognized as customary international law binding on all states regardless of treaty ratification.

The UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) has issued specific guidance affirming that individuals persecuted for religion qualify for refugee protection. UNHCR has specifically identified Eritrea as generating religious refugees due to systematic prosecution of religious minorities. This guidance represents international consensus that religious persecution in Eritrea creates legitimate asylum claims.

Implications for Asylum Claims

Religious minorities from Eritrea seeking asylum face legal terrain strongly supportive of their claims. The explicit protection for religion in the 1951 Refugee Convention provides a firm foundation for asylum eligibility. Individuals who can demonstrate they are members of unregistered religious communities or who were persecuted for their religious beliefs establish a clear basis for asylum protection. Those who were actually arrested and imprisoned as religious prisoners have exceptionally strong claims supported by documentary evidence of persecution.

The legal standard for asylum eligibility requires only a "well-founded fear" of persecution, not proof of past persecution prior to flight. However, documented persecution strengthens claims significantly. Religious prisoners who fled after experiencing torture can provide medical or psychological evidence supporting their claims. Individuals who can document their religious affiliation through organizational records, correspondence, or witness testimony establish their identity as members of persecuted religious communities. Even without documentation of past arrest, individuals can establish well-founded fear based on the systematic persecution documented in country reports and their own religious practices.

Country conditions documentation strongly supports religious persecution asylum claims from Eritrea. Reports from the U.S. State Department's International Religious Freedom Office, Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, and UNHCR all document Eritrea's criminalization of unregistered religions and systematic persecution of religious minorities. These sources specifically document the imprisonment of Jehovah's Witnesses, evangelical Christians, and other religious practitioners. Immigration judges rely heavily on such country reports when assessing persecution claims. The consistency of documentation regarding Eritrea's religious persecution strengthens asylum applicants' credibility and legal position.

State protection analysis demonstrates categorically that no protection is available for religious minorities in Eritrea. The government itself is the persecutor. Government authorities actively prosecute religious minorities, preventing any possibility of seeking government protection from government-perpetrated persecution. Law enforcement officers and judicial officials share the government's anti-religious-minority views and will not protect religious minorities from prosecution. Therefore, Eritrean religious minorities cannot reasonably expect their own government to provide protection, which strengthens asylum claims substantially.

Documentation and evidence enhance religious persecution asylum claims. Individuals who can provide evidence of their religious membership and practices—such as religious texts, correspondence with religious communities, participation in religious organizations, or testimony from religious leaders—significantly strengthen claims. Medical or psychological evidence of trauma resulting from torture or imprisonment supports credibility. Witness testimony from other prisoners, family members, or religious leaders corroborating persecution claims enhances applicants' legal positions. Religious freedom organizations often provide attestations supporting asylum claims by persecuted religious minorities, confirming the applicant's involvement in unregistered religious communities and the risks such involvement creates in Eritrea.

Expert Assessment

"Eritrea's criminalization of unregistered religions and systematic persecution of religious minorities represents one of the world's most severe religious freedom violations. The imprisonment of over 50 Jehovah's Witnesses, the torture of evangelical Christians, and the pervasive surveillance of religious practice create an environment where individuals cannot practice their faith without risking arrest and torture."

This assessment reflects the consensus of international religious freedom organizations including Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, the International Religious Freedom Roundtable, and the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom. These organizations consistently identify Eritrea among the countries with the most severe religious freedom violations globally. The U.S. State Department designates Eritrea as a "Country of Particular Concern" due to systematic religious persecution, the highest designation in the international religious freedom assessment framework. Expert consensus strongly supports the legal eligibility of Eritrean religious minorities for refugee protection in receiving countries.

Conclusion

Eritrea's criminalization of unregistered religions and systematic persecution of religious minorities represents one of the world's most severe violations of religious freedom. The government's decision to recognize only four religions while criminalizing the practice of all other faiths eliminates religious freedom in any meaningful sense. Members of unregistered religions face arrest, torture, and indefinite imprisonment without trial for the sole crime of practicing their faith. Even members of the four recognized religions operate under pervasive government control, preventing authentic religious practice according to conscience.

The persecution of religious minorities violates Eritrea's binding obligations under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, and the Convention Against Torture. The documented torture of religious detainees, the indefinite imprisonment without trial of religious minorities, and the criminalization of religious practice constitute grave violations of international law. The imprisonment of over 50 Jehovah's Witnesses and an estimated 1,000+ religious prisoners demonstrates the scale of persecution and the government's determination to enforce religious conformity.

Receiving countries rightfully grant asylum to Eritrean religious minorities at high rates, recognizing their well-founded fear of persecution and their explicit eligibility under the 1951 Refugee Convention for protection based on religion. For many religious minorities in Eritrea, flight from the country is necessary for survival and the ability to practice their faith. The international community's commitment to protecting refugees based on religious persecution provides a crucial lifeline for individuals fleeing one of the world's most oppressive religious environments. Until Eritrea's legal and social environment fundamentally transforms to protect religious freedom and the rights of religious minorities, persecution will continue, and refugees will continue to flee to receive asylum protection in countries committed to religious freedom and human dignity.